(The expansionist policies of the British through Wellesley’s Subsidiary Alliance and Dalhousie’s Doctrine of Lapse marked a shift in colonial strategy, turning diplomacy into dominance.)
| This topic is crucial for UPSC GS Paper I (Modern Indian History), and also links with GS Paper II (Governance and Polity). It reflects themes of colonial expansion, administrative strategies, and resistance—core to Mains answer-writing. Additionally, it provides high-value Prelims facts and analytical insight for Essay and Ethics papers. |
I. Wellesley’s Subsidiary Alliance
Lord Wellesley, who served as the Governor-General from 1798 to 1805, devised the Subsidiary Alliance as a strategic diplomatic tool to bring Indian states under British influence without direct annexation.
1. Key Terms of the Alliance:
a. The Indian ruler had to accept a permanent British force within his territory and pay for its maintenance.
b. The ruler could not form alliances or wage wars without British consent. c. A British Resident was to be stationed at the ruler’s court.
d. The ruler had to disband his own troops in favour of the subsidiary force. 2. Implementation:
a. Hyderabad was the first state to sign the alliance in 1798.
b. The policy was imposed on Mysore after the defeat of Tipu Sultan in 1799. c. Awadh was pressured into surrendering large parts of territory in 1801.
d. Maratha states like Bassein (1802) came under this system after the Second Anglo-Maratha War.
3. Outcome:
a. The policy drained Indian treasuries, reduced the autonomy of native states, and expanded British dominance.
II. Dalhousie’s Doctrine of Lapse:
Lord Dalhousie, Governor-General from 1848 to 1856, used the Doctrine of Lapse to justify the annexation of Indian princely states.
1. Principle:
a. If a ruler died without a natural male heir, his kingdom would ‘lapse’ to the British. b. Adopted heirs were not recognised unless sanctioned by the British.
2. Major Annexed States:
a. Satara (1848)
b. Sambalpur and Jaitpur (1849)
c. Baghat and Udaipur (1852)
d. Jhansi (1853) – Rani Lakshmibai’s adopted son was denied succession.
e. Nagpur (1854)
3. Impact:
a. The policy led to widespread resentment.
b. It was viewed as a direct attack on Indian sovereignty and traditions.
III. Annexation of Awadh (1856):
The annexation of Awadh was not carried out through the Doctrine of Lapse but on the grounds of misgovernance.
1. Official Reason:
a. British cited maladministration and lawlessness as justification.
2. Real Motive:
a. Awadh’s strategic location and rich resources were the actual attractions. 3. Consequences:
a. Nawab Wajid Ali Shah was deposed and exiled.
b. Landed elites (taluqdars) lost their privileges.
c. Discontent among the sepoys of Awadh, many of whom later joined the 1857 rebellion.
IV. Administrative Centralisation and Revenue Control
With expanding territory, the British sought to establish centralised administrative and revenue mechanisms.
1. Centralised Bureaucracy:
a. British civil services replaced indigenous administrative structures.
b. Codified laws were introduced, reducing local customs.
2. Revenue Systems:
a. Permanent Settlement (Bengal): Fixed land revenue with zamindars as intermediaries.
b. Ryotwari System (Madras, Bombay): Direct revenue collection from peasants. c. Mahalwari System (North India): Revenue assessed on villages.
3. Effect:
a. Enhanced British fiscal control.
b. Weakened traditional revenue authorities.
V. Political Response of Indian Rulers
The responses of Indian rulers varied, from collaboration to resistance.
1. Compliance:
a. States like Hyderabad and Gwalior cooperated to preserve symbolic power. 2. Passive Resistance:
a. Delayed acceptance of British Residents or attempts to negotiate better terms. 3. Rebellion:
a. Jhansi: Rani Lakshmibai led an armed revolt.
b. Awadh: Begum Hazrat Mahal emerged as a leader during the 1857 rebellion. c. Tantia Tope, a Maratha general, resisted British expansion.
Conclusion
The Subsidiary Alliance and Doctrine of Lapse were more than administrative mechanisms—they were calculated moves to consolidate imperial control. The annexation of Awadh under the guise of reform further revealed the political opportunism of British policies. These developments set the stage for growing discontent, leading directly to the Revolt of 1857.
| For UPSC aspirants, this topic provides key insights into British strategies, colonial expansion, and the early seeds of Indian resistance. |
MCQ
1. Which Indian state was the first to accept the Subsidiary Alliance?
A. Mysore
B. Awadh
C. Hyderabad
D. Bassein
Answer: C. Hyderabad
Explanation: The Nizam of Hyderabad was the first to accept the Subsidiary Alliance in 1798. 2. The Treaty of Bassein (1802) was signed between the British and:
A. Holkar of Indore
B. Rani of Jhansi
C. Peshwa Baji Rao II
D. Scindia of Gwalior
Answer: C. Peshwa Baji Rao II
Explanation: The treaty brought the Peshwa under British protection and marked British involvement in Maratha politics.
3. Under the Subsidiary Alliance, the Indian ruler was required to:
1. Accept a British force in his territory
2. Disband his own army
3. Pay for the maintenance of British troops
4. Conduct foreign affairs independently
Select the correct code:
A. 1, 2, and 3 only
B. 1, 3, and 4 only
C. 2, 3, and 4 only
D. All of the above
Answer: A. 1, 2, and 3 only
Explanation: The ruler lost military and diplomatic independence; foreign affairs had to be approved by the British.
4. Which of the following was annexed under the Doctrine of Lapse?
A. Awadh
B. Hyderabad
C. Jhansi
D. Mysore
Answer: C. Jhansi
Explanation: Jhansi was annexed in 1853 when the British refused to recognize Rani Lakshmibai’s adopted son as heir.
5. The Doctrine of Lapse was introduced during the tenure of:
A. Lord Wellesley
B. Lord Hastings
C. Lord Cornwallis
D. Lord Dalhousie
Answer: D. Lord Dalhousie
Explanation: Lord Dalhousie applied the Doctrine of Lapse from 1848 to 1856 to annex several princely states.
6. Assertion (A): The Doctrine of Lapse respected the traditional right to adopt heirs. Reason (R): The British allowed adopted sons to inherit rulership without interference.
A. Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation
B. Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation
C. A is true, but R is false
D. A is false, but R is true
Answer: D. A is false, but R is true
Explanation: The Doctrine denied recognition to adopted heirs unless approved by the British, contrary to Indian traditions.
7. Which of the following were annexed under the Doctrine of Lapse?
1. Satara
2. Nagpur
3. Jaitpur
4. Hyderabad
Select the correct code:
A. 1, 2, and 3 only
B. 1, 2, and 4 only
C. 2, 3, and 4 only
D. All of the above
Answer: A. 1, 2, and 3 only
Explanation: Hyderabad was not annexed under this doctrine. Satara, Nagpur, and Jaitpur were. 8. Which of the following best describes the official reason for annexation of Awadh in 1856?
A. Lack of a male heir
B. Religious intolerance
C. Misgovernance and lawlessness
D. Refusal to sign Subsidiary Alliance
Answer: C. Misgovernance and lawlessness
Explanation: The British claimed Awadh was misgoverned, though the real motive was strategic and economic.
9. Under the Permanent Settlement system, who were recognized as the revenue collectors?
A. Ryots
B. Zamindars
C. Village panchayats
D. British Residents
Answer: B. Zamindars
Explanation: Zamindars were made hereditary revenue collectors under the Permanent Settlement of Bengal.
10. Match the princely states with their annexation year under Doctrine of Lapse:
Satara – A. 1853
Jhansi – B. 1848
Nagpur – C. 1854
A. Satara – B, Jhansi – A, Nagpur – C
B. Satara – C, Jhansi – A, Nagpur – B
C. Satara – A, Jhansi – C, Nagpur – B
D. Satara – A, Jhansi – B, Nagpur – C
Answer: A. Satara – B, Jhansi – A, Nagpur – C
Explanation: Satara (1848), Jhansi (1853), Nagpur (1854) were annexed in that sequence. 11. Who led the revolt in Awadh during the 1857 uprising?
A. Rani Lakshmibai
B. Kunwar Singh
C. Begum Hazrat Mahal
D. Nana Sahib
Answer: C. Begum Hazrat Mahal
Explanation: She opposed the British after the annexation of Awadh and led the resistance during 1857.
12. Which revenue system involved direct settlement with the individual peasant?
A. Mahalwari
B. Zamindari
C. Ryotwari
D. Iqtadari
Answer: C. Ryotwari
Explanation: The Ryotwari system, implemented in Madras and Bombay, involved direct collection from ryots (cultivators).
13. Assertion (A): Subsidiary Alliance strengthened Indian military autonomy. Reason (R): Indian rulers had to maintain British troops at their expense.
A. Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation
B. Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation
C. A is false, but R is true
D. A is true, but R is false
Answer: C. A is false, but R is true
Explanation: The Alliance weakened Indian military autonomy by disbanding native forces. 14. Who among the following was a Maratha general who resisted British expansion during 1857?
A. Tantia Tope
B. Nana Sahib
C. Rani Lakshmibai
D. Begum Hazrat Mahal
Answer: A. Tantia Tope
Explanation: Tantia Tope was a close ally of Rani Lakshmibai and led military resistance against the British.
15. The Mahalwari system was introduced in:
A. Bengal
B. Madras
C. Bombay
D. North-Western Provinces
Answer: D. North-Western Provinces
Explanation: Mahalwari was implemented primarily in North India; the revenue was assessed collectively on entire villages.
