(Santhal Rebellion (1855): leadership of Sidhu-Kanhu, Kol Uprising (1831–32): land alienation, Munda Ulgulan (1899): Birsa Munda’s movement, Bhil uprisings in Central India, Impact on colonial forest and land policies)
| The topic of tribal uprisings such as the Santhal, Munda, Kol, and Bhil rebellions is highly relevant for UPSC across Prelims and Mains. These events are crucial for understanding the resistance of indigenous communities to colonial exploitation and land alienation. In Prelims, direct questions on dates, leaders, and causes are common, while in Mains, they enrich answers in Modern Indian History and social justice topics. The uprisings also relate to environmental governance and tribal policies in GS Paper II and III. Ethical leadership of figures like Birsa Munda aligns with GS Paper IV. Additionally, these themes are useful for Essay and Optional subjects like History and Anthropology. |
Introduction
The colonial period in India witnessed numerous tribal uprisings that were rooted in the exploitation and marginalization of indigenous communities. These revolts, often under-recognized in mainstream historical discourse, are critical for understanding resistance movements and colonial policy impacts.
1. Santhal Rebellion (1855–56)
Leaders: Sidhu and Kanhu Murmu
Location: Present-day Jharkhand, parts of Bihar and West Bengal
The Santhal rebellion was a watershed moment in tribal resistance against British colonial authority and the oppressive zamindari system. The Santhals, who had migrated to the Rajmahal Hills for cultivation, were subjected to severe economic exploitation by moneylenders, revenue officials, and landlords.
Causes:
- Unjust revenue system and heavy taxation
- Exploitative practices of moneylenders (mahajans)
- Land alienation and forced labor (begar)
Course and Suppression: In June 1855, Sidhu and Kanhu organized around 10,000 Santhals and launched an armed insurrection. The rebellion witnessed brutal clashes but was eventually suppressed by the British through military force.
Impact:
- Led to the creation of the Santhal Parganas under a special administrative setup
- Exposed the failure of the colonial land revenue system
2. Kol Uprising (1831–32)
Location: Chotanagpur Plateau (modern-day Jharkhand)
The Kol tribes, including Ho, Munda, Oraon, and Bhumij communities, rebelled against the encroachment of non-tribal landlords and moneylenders.
Causes:
- Influx of non-tribal settlers due to new land policies
- Disruption of traditional tribal governance and judicial systems
- Excessive land rent and indebtedness
Course and Outcome: The uprising began in 1831, involving coordinated attacks on government offices, moneylenders, and zamindars. Despite the scale, it was crushed by British forces.
Impact:
- Forced colonial authorities to reevaluate their land policies
- Led to administrative segregation in tribal belts to minimize unrest
3. Munda Ulgulan (1899–1900): Birsa Munda’s Vision of Tribal Autonomy
Leader: Birsa Munda
Location: Ranchi and Singhbhum districts (present-day Jharkhand)
The Munda rebellion, known as Ulgulan (Great Tumult), was led by the charismatic Birsa Munda, who combined traditional tribal faith with a new spiritual-political ideology.
Causes:
- Displacement of Mundas due to the zamindari system
- Denial of traditional land rights (khuntkatti)
- Exploitation by moneylenders, Christian missionaries, and landlords
Course and Impact: Birsa organized the tribals for socio-religious and political awakening. The movement soon turned into a full-fledged revolt but was suppressed in 1900.
Legacy:
- Birsa Munda became a symbol of tribal identity and resistance
- Led to the Chotanagpur Tenancy Act (1908) protecting tribal land rights
4. Bhil Uprisings
Region: Khandesh, Western Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Maharashtra
The Bhils, known for their martial tradition, resisted British encroachments throughout the 19th century. Major uprisings occurred during 1818–1831.
Causes:
- Encroachment on forest rights and traditional livelihood
- Imposition of unfamiliar revenue systems
- Suppression of local chieftains and customary authority
Response and Outcome: The British used a combination of military campaigns and conciliatory measures like the appointment of British officers to manage tribal affairs. Yet, Bhil resistance persisted sporadically for decades.
Significance:
- Demonstrated the resilience of tribal communities
- Laid the groundwork for future forest conservation laws
5. Colonial Policy Shifts: Forests and Land
The tribal uprisings had profound implications for British colonial policy:
Forest Policy Changes:
- Establishment of the Indian Forest Act (1865, revised in 1878 and 1927)
- Reserved forests curtailed tribal access to forest produce
- Policing of forest regions increased
Land Revenue Adjustments:
- Creation of special administrative regions (e.g., Santhal Parganas)
- Enactment of tenancy acts (e.g., Chotanagpur Tenancy Act)
- Recognition of customary tribal land rights in some areas
Conclusion
The tribal uprisings during British India were not isolated events but reflected a broader struggle for rights, identity, and autonomy. These movements underline the resilience of indigenous communities against systemic exploitation.
| For UPSC aspirants, these revolts provide vital insights into India’s socio-political landscape during colonial rule, enriching perspectives for both Preliminary objective questions and Mains analytical essays. |
MCQ
1. The Santhal Rebellion of 1855 was led by:
a) Birsa Munda
b) Tilka Majhi
c) Sidhu and Kanhu Murmu
d) Jatra Oraon
Answer: c) Sidhu and Kanhu Murmu
Explanation: They led the Santhal uprising against colonial oppression and the zamindari system.
2. The Kol Uprising of 1831–32 primarily occurred in which of the following regions?
a) Santhal Parganas
b) Khandesh
c) Chotanagpur Plateau
d) Telangana
Answer: c) Chotanagpur Plateau
Explanation: The uprising occurred in the tribal-dominated Chotanagpur region (now in Jharkhand).
3. The main cause of the Santhal Rebellion was:
a) Religious conversions
b) Encroachment on forest lands
c) Exploitation by moneylenders and zamindars
d) British recruitment policies
Answer: c) Exploitation by moneylenders and zamindars
Explanation: Economic exploitation triggered the rebellion.
4. Which act was passed as a response to the Munda Ulgulan movement?
a) Indian Forest Act, 1927
b) Ryotwari Act
c) Chotanagpur Tenancy Act, 1908
d) Land Alienation Act, 1900
Answer: c) Chotanagpur Tenancy Act, 1908
Explanation: It protected traditional tribal land rights.
5. Birsa Munda led the Ulgulan movement in which region?
a) Bastar
b) Ranchi and Singhbhum
c) Santhal Parganas
d) Satpura Hills
Answer: b) Ranchi and Singhbhum
Explanation: The movement was centered in present-day Jharkhand.
6. Which of the following was NOT a reason for the Kol uprising?
a) Loss of traditional authority
b) Disruption of tribal land ownership
c) Introduction of permanent settlement
d) Increase in British military recruitment
Answer: d) Increase in British military recruitment
Explanation: The revolt was more about land alienation and autonomy.
7. The Bhil uprisings were largely concentrated in:
a) Jharkhand and Bihar
b) Western Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan
c) Chhattisgarh and Odisha
d) Assam and Arunachal Pradesh
Answer: b) Western Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan
Explanation: These areas were strongholds of Bhil resistance.
8. Match the following uprisings with their leaders:
| Uprising | Leader |
| A. Munda Ulgulan | 1. Sidhu-Kanhu |
| B. Santhal Rebellion | 2. Birsa Munda |
| C. Kol Uprising | 3. Collective tribal leadership |
a) A-1, B-2, C-3
b) A-2, B-1, C-3
c) A-3, B-1, C-2
d) A-2, B-3, C-1
Answer: b) A-2, B-1, C-3
Explanation: Munda – Birsa Munda; Santhal – Sidhu-Kanhu; Kol – multiple tribal groups and leaders.
9. Assertion (A): The Munda Ulgulan was purely a religious movement.
Reason (R): Birsa Munda declared himself as a messenger of God.
a) Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A
b) Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A
c) A is false, but R is true
d) A is true, but R is false
Answer: c) A is false, but R is true
Explanation: The movement was both religious and political in nature.
10. Which of the following policies changed after tribal uprisings?
- Land revenue adjustments
- Creation of special administrative regions
- Expansion of zamindari rights
- Introduction of reserved forests
a) 1 and 2 only
b) 1, 2 and 4
c) 2 and 3 only
d) All of the above
Answer: b) 1, 2 and 4
Explanation: These measures were taken to manage tribal unrest and resource use.
11. Consider the following statements about Santhal Rebellion:
- It led to the formation of a separate administrative unit – Santhal Parganas.
- It was directed mainly against the East India Company’s army.
Which of the above is/are correct?
a) 1 only
b) 2 only
c) Both 1 and 2
d) Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: a) 1 only
Explanation: It was directed mainly against local exploiters, not the Company army.
12. The term ‘Ulgulan’ refers to:
a) Military alliance among tribal leaders
b) Peace treaty among tribal chiefs
c) The Great Tumult led by Birsa Munda
d) Forest tax imposed by the British
Answer: c) The Great Tumult led by Birsa Munda
Explanation: Ulgulan in Mundari means uprising or revolt.
13. Assertion (A): The Bhil uprisings were short-lived and quickly suppressed.
Reason (R): The Bhils lacked any martial tradition or political leadership.
a) Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A
b) A is true, but R is false
c) A is false, but R is true
d) Both A and R are false
Answer: b) A is true, but R is false
Explanation: Bhils had a strong martial tradition, though leadership was localized.
14. Which of the following acts restricted tribal access to forests after the uprisings?
a) Rowlatt Act
b) Indian Forest Act
c) Vernacular Press Act
d) Criminal Tribes Act
Answer: b) Indian Forest Act
Explanation: It declared forests as state property and restricted tribal use.
15. The Chotanagpur Tenancy Act (1908) was significant because:
a) It abolished the zamindari system in all of India
b) It provided land rights to tribals in the Chotanagpur region
c) It allowed missionaries to acquire tribal land
d) It legalized bonded labor
Answer: b) It provided land rights to tribals in the Chotanagpur region
Explanation: It protected tribal land from alienation to outsiders.
