- Gandhi emerges as national leader
- Khilafat issue: support to Ottoman Caliphate by Ali brothers
- Boycott: foreign goods, schools, courts, titles
- Surrender of British honours and Swadeshi use
- Chauri Chaura incident (1922): Gandhi withdraws movement
- Congress reorganization on linguistic basis
Non-Cooperation Movement (1920–22) & Khilafat Movement
Introduction
The Non-Cooperation Movement (1920–22) and the Khilafat Movement were significant events in India’s struggle for independence. These movements were characterized by a blend of nationalist, anti-imperialist, and religious sentiments, and they played a crucial role in galvanizing the Indian masses against British rule. Mahatma Gandhi emerged as a national leader during this period, advocating for non-violent resistance and mobilizing the masses through various strategies.
Non-Cooperation Movement (1920–22)
Background and Context
- Rowlatt Act (1919): The Rowlatt Act, which allowed the government to imprison suspects without trial, sparked widespread resentment.
- Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (1919): The brutal suppression of a peaceful gathering in Amritsar, resulting in the deaths of hundreds, further fueled anti-British sentiment.
- Khilafat Issue: The perceived betrayal of the Khilafat cause by the British after World War I added to the discontent among the Muslim community.
Objectives
- Protest British Policies: To protest against British policies and seek self-rule (Swaraj) through non-violent means.
- Support the Khilafat Cause: To support the Khilafat Movement and protect the Caliphate in Turkey.
Key Strategies
- Boycott of British Institutions:
- Educational Institutions: Students and teachers boycotted British schools and colleges.
- Courts: Lawyers refused to practice in British courts.
- Legislative Councils: Elected members resigned from legislative councils.
- Promotion of Swadeshi Goods:
- Khadi: Hand-spun and hand-woven khadi was promoted to support Indian industries and reduce dependence on British goods.
- Boycott of Foreign Goods: Shops selling foreign cloth and liquor were picketed to discourage their use.
- Mass Mobilization:
- Nationwide Tours: Gandhi and other leaders undertook extensive tours to mobilize support.
- Public Meetings: Large public meetings and rallies were organized to spread the message of non-cooperation.
- Surrender of Titles and Honors: Prominent Indians surrendered their titles and honors conferred by the British.
Regional Impact
- Bengal: The movement was particularly strong in Bengal, led by leaders like Chittaranjan Das and Subhas Chandra Bose.
- Punjab: In Punjab, the movement was influenced by the Ghadar Party and saw significant participation from the peasantry.
- Gujarat: Gandhiji’s home state, Gujarat, saw widespread participation, with leaders like Vallabhbhai Patel playing a crucial role.
Challenges and Withdrawal
- Chauri Chaura Incident (1922): A violent clash in Chauri Chaura, where a mob set fire to a police station, resulting in the deaths of 22 policemen, led Gandhi to withdraw the movement to maintain the principle of non-violence.
- Controversy: The decision to withdraw the movement was controversial, with many leaders and participants feeling that the movement should have continued.
Impact
- Mass Participation: The movement saw widespread participation from students, lawyers, and common people, demonstrating the capacity of the Indian masses to engage in modern nationalist politics.
- Weakened British Authority: The movement significantly weakened British authority and demonstrated the growing resistance to colonial rule.
- Political Mobilization: It played a crucial role in the politicization and mobilization of various social classes, including peasants, workers, and women.
- Future Struggles: The movement laid the groundwork for future mass struggles against colonialism, highlighting the limitations of constitutional methods and the need for more direct action.
Khilafat Movement
Background and Context
- Caliphate of Turkey: The Khilafat Movement aimed to protect the Caliphate of Turkey, which was seen as the spiritual head of the Indian Muslims.
- British Treatment of Turkey: The movement protested the British government’s treatment of Turkey after World War I, perceived as a betrayal of promises made during the war.
Objectives
- Protect the Caliphate: To protect the Caliphate and ensure its continuation.
- Protest British Policies: To protest British policies and seek redress for the perceived injustices against Turkey.
Key Strategies
- Non-Violent Non-Cooperation: The movement adopted non-violent non-cooperation as a strategy, aligning with the Non-Cooperation Movement.
- Public Meetings and Propaganda: Extensive public meetings and propaganda efforts were organized to mobilize support.
- Joint Efforts: The Khilafat Movement often merged with the Non-Cooperation Movement, making it difficult to distinguish between the two.
Leadership
- Ali Brothers: Shaukat Ali and Muhammad Ali were key leaders of the Khilafat Movement.
- Gandhi’s Support: Gandhi’s support for the Khilafat cause helped galvanize the Muslim community and contributed to the broader anti-imperialist sentiment.
Regional Impact
- North India: The movement was particularly strong in North India, where it had a significant impact on the Muslim community.
- South India: In South India, leaders like Maulana Azad and Hakim Ajmal Khan played key roles in mobilizing support.
Challenges
- Communal Tensions: The movement sometimes took on a communal color, posing challenges for maintaining Hindu-Muslim unity.
- Government Repression: The British government responded with repression, including arrests and the use of force.
Impact
- Mass Participation: The movement saw significant participation from the Muslim community, raising the national, anti-imperialist consciousness of the Muslim masses and middle classes.
- Hindu-Muslim Unity: Despite challenges, the movement contributed to the strengthening of Hindu-Muslim unity, a crucial aspect of the broader national struggle.
- Political Mobilization: It played a crucial role in the politicization and mobilization of the Muslim community, contributing to the broader anti-colonial movement.
Gandhi’s Role and Emergence as a National Leader
Leadership and Advocacy
- Sympathy for Khilafat Cause: Gandhi was deeply sympathetic to the Khilafat cause, feeling that the British had committed a breach of faith.
- Non-Violent Non-Cooperation: He suggested to the Khilafat Committee that they adopt a programme of non-violent non-cooperation.
- Nationwide Tours: Gandhi’s tours and addresses at hundreds of meetings energized the movement, leading to significant mass participation.
- Constructive Work: He promoted khadi, national education, and social reforms like Hindu-Muslim unity and the upliftment of the Harijans.
Challenges and Withdrawal
- Chauri Chaura Incident: The Chauri Chaura incident in February 1922, where a violent clash resulted in the deaths of 22 policemen, led Gandhi to withdraw the movement to maintain the principle of non-violence.
- Controversy: The decision to withdraw the movement was controversial, with many leaders and participants feeling that the movement should have continued.
Impact on National Movement
- Mass Participation: The movements galvanized the masses, leading to widespread political activity and the establishment of numerous local organizations.
- National Consciousness: They demonstrated the capacity of the Indian people to participate in modern nationalist politics, dispelling the notion that national freedom was the preserve of the educated and the rich.
- Local Movements: The movements contributed to the rise of local movements, such as kisan sabhas in Avadh and labor movements in Assam.
- Anti-Colonial Sentiment: Despite the withdrawal of the Non-Cooperation Movement, the movements had already achieved a nation-wide spread and deepened the anti-colonial sentiment among the people.
- Future Struggles: They highlighted the limitations of constitutional methods and the need for more direct action against British rule, laying the groundwork for future mass struggles against colonialism.
Khilafat issue: support to Ottoman Caliphate by Ali brothers
Historical Context
Ottoman Empire and the Caliphate:
- The Ottoman Empire, which had been the leading Islamic power for centuries, was in decline by the early 20th century.
- The Caliphate, held by the Ottoman Sultan, was seen as the spiritual and political leadership of the Muslim world.
World War I and Its Aftermath:
- The Ottoman Empire allied with Germany during World War I and was defeated.
- The Treaty of Sèvres (1920) proposed the partition of the Ottoman Empire, which included the potential removal of the Caliphate.
Key Figures: The Ali Brothers
Maulana Muhammad Ali:
- A prominent journalist and politician.
- Co-founder of the Khilafat Committee.
- Known for his fiery speeches and writings advocating for the preservation of the Caliphate.
Maulana Shaukat Ali:
- Brother of Maulana Muhammad Ali.
- Also a key figure in the Khilafat movement.
- Worked alongside his brother to mobilize support and coordinate efforts.
- Formation and Objectives of the Khilafat Movement
Formation of the Khilafat Committee:
- Established in 1919 in response to the perceived threat to the Caliphate.
- Aimed to pressure the British government to protect the Caliphate and the territorial integrity of the Ottoman Empire.
Objectives:
- Preservation of the Caliphate: To ensure the continuation of the Caliphate as a symbol of Muslim unity and religious authority.
- Opposition to the Treaty of Sèvres: To protest the terms of the treaty that threatened the Caliphate and the Ottoman Empire.
- Pan-Islamic Solidarity: To foster a sense of unity among Muslims worldwide.
- Indian Independence: To align the Khilafat movement with the broader goal of Indian independence from British rule.
Activities and Mobilization
Public Campaigns:
- The Ali brothers organized mass meetings, delivered speeches, and wrote articles to raise awareness about the importance of the Caliphate.
- They emphasized the religious and cultural significance of the Caliphate for Muslims.
Collaboration with Indian National Congress:
- The Khilafat leaders, including the Ali brothers, worked closely with the Indian National Congress.
- This collaboration led to the Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-1922), which called for the boycott of British institutions and civil disobedience.
International Efforts:
- The Ali brothers and other Khilafat leaders reached out to Muslim communities in other countries to garner international support.
- They also sent delegations to Britain and other European countries to lobby for the preservation of the Caliphate.
Impact and Outcomes
Political Impact:
- The Khilafat movement brought a large number of Indian Muslims into the independence struggle.
- It helped to bridge the gap between Hindu and Muslim leaders, fostering a temporary alliance.
Social Impact:
- The movement heightened religious and cultural consciousness among Indian Muslims.
- It led to increased pan-Islamic sentiment and a sense of global Muslim identity.
Setbacks:
- The Turkish National Assembly, under Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, abolished the Caliphate in 1924.
- This decision led to the decline of the Khilafat movement, as its primary objective was no longer achievable.
Long-term Effects:
- Despite the abolition of the Caliphate, the movement had a lasting impact on Indian politics.
- It contributed to the rise of communal tensions between Hindus and Muslims, which would later play a significant role in the partition of India.
Boycott: foreign goods, schools, courts, titles
Objectives of the Boycott
Economic Independence:
- To reduce economic dependence on British goods and promote indigenous industries.
- To weaken the British economy by reducing demand for their products.
Educational Reform:
- To protest against the British educational system, which was seen as biased and inadequate.
- To promote national education and the establishment of indigenous educational institutions.
Legal Autonomy:
- To challenge the legitimacy of British courts and the legal system.
- To encourage the use of traditional and indigenous legal systems.
Cultural and Social Resistance:
- To reject British titles and honors, which were seen as symbols of colonial authority and subservience.
- To foster a sense of national pride and self-respect among Indians.
- Activities and Mobilization
Boycott of Foreign Goods:
- Public Bonfires: Organized public bonfires to burn foreign clothes and goods.
- Promotion of Swadeshi: Encouraged the use of Indian-made goods, particularly hand-spun and hand-woven cloth (khadi).
- Picketing and Protests: Conducted picketing at shops selling foreign goods and organized protests against the import of British products.
Boycott of Schools and Colleges:
- Withdrawal of Students: Students and teachers withdrew from British educational institutions.
- Establishment of National Schools: Set up national schools and colleges to provide alternative education.
- Promotion of Vernacular Education: Emphasized the importance of education in Indian languages and the inclusion of Indian history and culture in the curriculum
Boycott of Courts:
- Refusal to Appear: Lawyers and litigants refused to appear in British courts.
- Establishment of Panchayats: Set up traditional village councils (panchayats) to resolve disputes.
- Promotion of Indigenous Law: Encouraged the use of indigenous legal systems and practices.
Boycott of Titles and Honors:
- Return of Titles: Many Indians, including prominent leaders, returned their British titles and honors.
- Public Statements: Issued public statements renouncing British titles and honors.
- Cultural Resistance: Promoted a culture of self-respect and national pride, rejecting the notion of British superiority.
- Impact and Outcomes
Economic Impact:
- Reduction in Imports: There was a significant reduction in the import of British goods.
- Growth of Swadeshi Industries: Indian industries, particularly in textiles, saw a boost as people turned to indigenous products.
Educational Impact:
- Alternative Institutions: The establishment of national schools and colleges provided a viable alternative to British education.
- Cultural Revival: Education in Indian languages and the inclusion of Indian history and culture helped in the revival of national identity.
Legal Impact:
- Shift to Traditional Systems: The use of panchayats and indigenous legal systems gained popularity.
- Legal Awareness: Increased awareness among the masses about the limitations and biases of the British legal system.
Social and Cultural Impact:
- National Pride: The boycott of titles and honors fostered a sense of national pride and self-respect.
- Communal Unity: Initially, the movement brought together Hindus and Muslims, although this unity was later strained.
Challenges and Limitations
Economic Hardship:
- The boycott of foreign goods led to economic hardship for some, as British goods were often cheaper and more accessible.
- Some industries struggled to meet the increased demand for Indian products.
Educational Disruption:
- The withdrawal of students and teachers from British institutions caused disruption in the educational system.
- Some students and teachers faced difficulties in finding alternative educational opportunities.
Legal Inefficiencies:
- Traditional legal systems, while more culturally aligned, sometimes lacked the efficiency and resources of the British courts.
- Some legal disputes remained unresolved or were handled less effectively.
Communal Tensions:
- The movement’s alignment with the Khilafat issue led to increased communal tensions, particularly after the abolition of the Caliphate in 1924.
- The alliance between the Khilafat movement and the Indian National Congress began to fray, affecting the broader independence struggle.
Surrender of British honours and Swadeshi use
Surrender of British Honors
Objectives
Reject Colonial Authority:
- To reject the symbols of British authority and subservience.
- To demonstrate a commitment to the principles of national independence and self-respect.
Moral and Symbolic Protest:
- To make a moral and symbolic statement against British rule.
- To inspire others to join the movement by setting an example of defiance.
- Activities and Mobilization
Public Announcements:
- Many prominent Indians, including leaders and intellectuals, publicly announced their decision to return British titles and honors.
- These announcements were often made in newspapers and at public meetings.
Formal Letters:
- Individuals wrote formal letters to the British authorities, renouncing their titles and honors.
- These letters were sometimes read out at public gatherings to emphasize the collective nature of the protest.
Leadership by Example:
- Mahatma Gandhi and other leaders, such as Jawaharlal Nehru and C. Rajagopalachari, returned their titles and honors.
- Their actions inspired a wide range of people, from professionals to common citizens, to follow suit.
Impact
Moral and Psychological Boost:
- The act of returning titles and honors provided a moral and psychological boost to the movement.
- It helped to galvanize public opinion and foster a sense of national pride and self-respect.
Political Unity:
- The surrender of honors helped to unify various sections of Indian society, including Hindus and Muslims, in the struggle against British rule.
- It demonstrated a shared commitment to the cause of independence.
International Attention:
- The widespread return of honors drew international attention to the Indian independence movement.
- It highlighted the growing resistance to British rule and the moral stance of Indian leaders.
Swadeshi Use
Objectives
Economic Independence:
- To reduce economic dependence on British goods and promote self-reliance.
- To support and revitalize Indian industries, particularly in textiles.
Cultural Revival:
- To promote Indian culture and traditions.
- To foster a sense of national identity and pride through the use of indigenous products.
Activities and Mobilization
Public Bonfires:
- Organized public bonfires to burn foreign clothes and goods.
- These events were symbolic and aimed to show the resolve of the people to reject British products.
Promotion of Khadi:
- Encouraged the use of khadi (hand-spun and hand-woven cloth) as a symbol of resistance and self-reliance.
- Set up khadi production centers and trained people in spinning and weaving.
Boycott Campaigns:
- Conducted picketing at shops selling foreign goods.
- Organized protests and demonstrations against the import of British products.
Alternative Markets:
- Established alternative markets and cooperatives to sell Swadeshi goods.
- Promoted the use of Swadeshi products through advertisements and public speeches.
Impact
Economic Impact:
- Reduction in Imports: There was a significant reduction in the import of British goods, particularly textiles.
- Growth of Indian Industries: Indian industries, especially in textiles, saw a boost as people turned to indigenous products.
- Empowerment of Local Economies: The promotion of Swadeshi goods helped to empower local economies and reduce economic exploitation.
Cultural Impact:
- Revival of Traditional Crafts: The movement led to a revival of traditional crafts and industries.
- Enhanced National Identity: The use of Swadeshi goods fostered a sense of national identity and pride.
- Cultural Awareness: Increased awareness and appreciation of Indian culture and traditions.
Social Impact:
- Community Engagement: The Swadeshi movement engaged a wide range of people, from rural artisans to urban consumers.
- Gender Inclusion: Women played a significant role in the Swadeshi movement, particularly in spinning and weaving khadi.
- Social Cohesion: The movement helped to build social cohesion and a sense of collective purpose.
Challenges and Limitations
Economic Hardship:
- The initial phase of the Swadeshi movement led to economic hardship for some, as British goods were often cheaper and more accessible.
- Some industries struggled to meet the increased demand for Indian products, leading to quality and supply issues.
Resistance from Elites:
- Some Indian elites were reluctant to give up their British titles and honors, as they provided social and economic benefits.
- The transition to Swadeshi goods was not always smooth, as some people were accustomed to British products.
British Countermeasures:
- The British authorities responded with repression, including arrests and the imposition of fines on those participating in the boycott.
- They also tried to undermine the movement by promoting the idea that Swadeshi goods were inferior.
Chauri Chaura incident (1922): Gandhi withdraws movement
The Chauri Chaura Incident
Location and Date
- Location: Chauri Chaura, a small town in the Gorakhpur district of the United Provinces (now Uttar Pradesh).
- Date: February 4, 1922.
Sequence of Events
Initial Protest:
- A peaceful protest march was organized by local peasants against the high land revenue and other grievances.
- The protesters were marching to a local market to hold a meeting.
Police Action:
- The British police, fearing the protest, attempted to disperse the crowd.
- They fired upon the peaceful protesters, killing several and injuring many.
Retaliatory Violence:
- Enraged by the police action, the protesters retaliated.
- They set fire to the police station, resulting in the deaths of 22 police officers.
Immediate Reactions
Public Outrage:
- The incident sparked widespread outrage and condemnation.
- It highlighted the potential for violence in the movement, which was supposed to be non-violent.
Government Response:
- The British government responded with severe repression.
- Many leaders and participants were arrested, and the movement faced increased pressure.
Gandhi’s Decision to Withdraw the Movement
Reasons for Withdrawal
Commitment to Non-Violence:
- Gandhi was deeply committed to the principle of non-violence (ahimsa).
- The Chauri Chaura incident demonstrated that the movement was losing control and could lead to more violence.
Moral Responsibility:
- Gandhi felt a moral responsibility to prevent further bloodshed and to maintain the integrity of the movement.
- He believed that the use of violence would undermine the moral high ground of the independence struggle.
Strategic Considerations:
- Gandhi saw the incident as a sign that the movement was not ready for mass civil disobedience.
- He feared that the movement could spiral out of control and lead to widespread chaos and disorder.
- Process of Withdrawal
Public Announcement:
- Gandhi made a public announcement to withdraw the Non-Cooperation Movement.
- He addressed the Indian National Congress and the masses, explaining his reasons for the decision.
Congress Resolution:
- The Indian National Congress, under Gandhi’s leadership, passed a resolution to suspend the movement.
- This decision was met with mixed reactions, with some leaders and activists expressing disappointment and frustration.
Personal Actions:
- Gandhi himself went on a fast to atone for the violence and to emphasize the importance of non-violence.
- He also took responsibility for the incident and was willing to face the consequences, including arrest.
Impact and Outcomes
Short-term Impact:
- Suspension of Movement: The Non-Cooperation Movement was effectively suspended, leading to a lull in the independence struggle.
- Disappointment and Frustration: Many activists and leaders were disappointed by the decision, feeling that the movement was making progress.
- Repression: The British government intensified its repression, arresting and imprisoning many leaders, including Gandhi.
Long-term Impact:
- Reinforcement of Non-Violence: The incident and Gandhi’s response reinforced the importance of non-violence in the independence struggle.
- Strategic Reassessment: It led to a strategic reassessment of the movement’s tactics and goals.
- Organizational Strengthening: The Congress and other organizations focused on strengthening their internal structures and preparing for future movements.
Cultural and Social Impact:
- Moral Leadership: Gandhi’s decision to withdraw the movement and take personal responsibility enhanced his moral leadership and credibility.
- Community Reflection: The incident prompted a period of reflection and self-criticism among the Indian masses and leaders.
Congress reorganization on linguistic basis
Congress Leadership:
- Mahatma Gandhi: Emphasized the importance of unity and the need to address the concerns of all Indians.
- Jawaharlal Nehru: Supported the idea of linguistic reorganization as a means to strengthen the Congress and the independence movement.
- Other Leaders: Many other leaders within the Congress, such as C. Rajagopalachari and P. Sundarayya, also played crucial roles in advocating for and implementing the reorganization.
Objectives of the Reorganization
Enhance Representation:
- To ensure that the Congress was more representative of the diverse linguistic and cultural groups in India.
- To give a voice to regional leaders and movements within the Congress.
Strengthen Unity:
- To foster a sense of unity and inclusiveness by recognizing and respecting linguistic identities.
- To prevent the fragmentation of the independence movement along linguistic lines.
Improve Communication:
- To improve communication and mobilization by using languages that were more familiar and accessible to the masses.
- To make the Congress’s messages and policies more understandable and relatable to people in different regions.
Activities and Mobilization
Formation of Provincial Committees:
- The Congress established provincial committees based on linguistic regions.
- These committees were responsible for organizing and mobilizing support at the local level.
Linguistic Conferences:
- Organized conferences and meetings in different linguistic regions to discuss and address local issues.
- These conferences helped to build a network of regional leaders and activists.
Promotion of Vernacular Languages:
- Encouraged the use of vernacular languages in Congress publications, speeches, and other communications.
- Trained leaders and activists to communicate effectively in local languages.
Inclusion of Regional Leaders:
- Brought regional leaders into the Congress leadership to ensure that their perspectives and concerns were represented.
- Provided a platform for regional leaders to contribute to the national movement.
Impact and Outcomes
Increased Representation:
- The reorganization led to a more diverse and representative Congress.
- Regional leaders and movements felt more included and supported, which helped to broaden the base of the independence struggle.
Improved Mobilization:
- The use of vernacular languages and the formation of provincial committees made it easier to mobilize support across different regions.
- Local issues and grievances were more effectively addressed, leading to greater participation in the movement.
Strengthened Unity:
- Recognizing linguistic identities helped to strengthen the unity of the Congress and the broader independence movement.
- It prevented the movement from fragmenting along linguistic lines and maintained a cohesive national front.
Cultural Revival:
- The promotion of vernacular languages and regional cultures contributed to a cultural revival.
- It helped to preserve and celebrate the rich linguistic and cultural heritage of India.
Preparation for Post-Independence:
- The reorganization on a linguistic basis laid the groundwork for the formation of linguistic states after independence.
- It influenced the future administrative and political structure of independent India, as seen in the States Reorganization Act of 1956.
Challenges and Limitations
Resistance from Some Leaders:
- Some leaders within the Congress were initially resistant to the idea of linguistic reorganization, fearing it might lead to regionalism and weaken the national movement.
- There were debates and discussions within the Congress about the best approach to reorganization.
Complexity of Implementation:
- The reorganization process was complex and required careful planning and coordination.
- There were logistical challenges in setting up and managing provincial committees based on linguistic regions.
Potential for Regionalism:
- While the reorganization aimed to strengthen unity, there was a risk that it could lead to regionalism and division.
- Some leaders and activists were concerned that linguistic states might prioritize regional interests over national unity.
Question 1:
Consider the following statements regarding the Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-22):
It was launched primarily due to the Rowlatt Act and the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre.
It saw significant participation from both Hindus and Muslims, largely due to the Khilafat issue.
The movement called for a boycott of foreign goods, government schools, courts, and legislative councils.
Mahatma Gandhi abruptly withdrew the movement after the Chauri Chaura incident.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
(a) 1, 2 and 3 only
(b) 2, 3 and 4 only
(c) 1, 3 and 4 only
(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
Answer: (b)
2.Which of the following events significantly contributed to Mahatma Gandhi’s emergence as a national leader during the period of the Non-Cooperation Movement?
His successful leadership in the Champaran, Ahmedabad, and Kheda Satyagrahas.
His leadership of the Khilafat Movement, forging Hindu-Muslim unity.
His advocacy for the boycott of foreign goods and promotion of Swadeshi.
His ability to mobilize masses through non-violent resistance.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2, 3 and 4 only
(c) 1, 3 and 4 only
(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
Answer: (d)
3.With reference to the Khilafat Movement in India, consider the following statements:
It was primarily launched by the Ali Brothers (Muhammad Ali and Shaukat Ali).
The movement aimed to pressurize the British government to preserve the Ottoman Caliphate.
Mahatma Gandhi saw the Khilafat Movement as an opportunity to unite Hindus and Muslims.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
Answer: (d)
4.Mains question:- 2021: Bring out the constructive programmes of Mahatma Gandhi during the Non-Cooperation Movement and Civil Disobedience Movement.
