(Permanent Settlement: Lord Cornwallis, zamindars, Ryotwari System: Munro and Reed in Madras, Mahalwari System: Holt Mackenzie, landholding communities, Impact on peasants and agrarian structure, Land alienation and indebtedness)
| In the context of UPSC Civil Services Examination (Prelims and Mains), understanding these systems is essential for comprehending colonial economic policies and their consequences. |
The British colonial rule in India witnessed significant transformations in the agrarian economy, primarily through the introduction of three major land revenue systems: the Permanent Settlement, Ryotwari System, and Mahalwari System. These systems played a pivotal role in shaping the rural landscape and socio-economic structure, having lasting impacts on Indian society.
Permanent Settlement (1793)
Introduced by Lord Cornwallis in Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa, the Permanent Settlement system aimed to create a loyal class of landlords or zamindars who would ensure a steady flow of revenue to the
British administration – Under this system:
● Zamindars were declared the proprietors of the land.
● They were responsible for collecting and remitting land revenue to the British government. ● The revenue demand was fixed permanently, hence the name “Permanent Settlement.”
Pros:
● Provided a predictable income to the British.
● Encouraged zamindars to invest in agricultural improvements (theoretically).
Cons:
● Peasants (ryots) became tenants with few rights.
● Zamindars often exploited the peasants and had little incentive to improve agriculture. ● Led to absentee landlordism and neglect of land.
Ryotwari System – Developed by Thomas Munro and Captain Alexander Read in the Madras Presidency, this system was later extended to Bombay and parts of Assam.
● Under Ryotwari, the ryots (cultivators) were recognized as the proprietors of the land. ● They paid land revenue directly to the government.
● The revenue demand was assessed on the basis of the quality of soil and the nature of the crop.
Pros:
● Eliminated intermediaries like zamindars.
● Theoretically empowered cultivators with land ownership.
Cons:
● High and frequently revised land revenue demands.
● Led to indebtedness and land alienation among peasants.
● Revenue collection remained harsh and rigid.
Mahalwari System – Introduced in the North-Western Provinces by Holt Mackenzie and later modified by James.
Thomson:
● Revenue was settled with entire villages or “mahals,” which consisted of landholding communities.
● The revenue was collected by village headmen on behalf of the entire community. ● The settlement was not permanent and was periodically revised.
Pros:
● Recognized traditional village institutions.
● Some flexibility in revenue assessment.
Cons:
● Still placed a heavy burden on cultivators.
● Local elites and intermediaries often manipulated the system.
Impact on Peasants and Agrarian Structure
All three systems were primarily designed to maximize colonial revenue rather than improve peasant welfare. Common impacts included:
● Increased Peasant Exploitation: Whether through zamindars or direct taxation, peasants bore the brunt of the colonial revenue extraction.
● Land Alienation: Many peasants lost their land due to inability to pay high taxes, leading to the rise of moneylenders.
● Indebtedness: Continuous pressure to pay revenue led to widespread indebtedness. ● Stagnation in Agriculture: Lack of state support and investment in agriculture led to low productivity and frequent famines.
Conclusion
The British land revenue systems fundamentally altered India’s agrarian structure. While they varied in administrative mechanisms, all three systems prioritized revenue extraction over agrarian development. These policies disrupted traditional land relations, led to the pauperization of the peasantry, and laid the groundwork for agrarian discontent, which later fed into the larger struggle for independence.
| From a UPSC exam perspective, aspirants must focus on the comparative features, administrative motives, and socio-economic consequences of each system. An analytical |
| understanding of these systems also aids in writing nuanced answers in GS Paper I (History) and GS Paper III (Economy). |
MCQ
1. Which of the following is correctly matched?
A. Permanent Settlement – Holt Mackenzie
B. Ryotwari System – Lord Cornwallis
C. Mahalwari System – Thomas Munro
D. Ryotwari System – Captain Alexander Read
Answer: D Ryotwari System – Captain Alexander Read
Explanation: The Ryotwari System was developed by Captain Alexander Read and Thomas Munro in Madras. Holt Mackenzie introduced the Mahalwari system.
2. The main feature of the Permanent Settlement was:
A. Direct settlement with cultivators
B. Settlement with village communities
C. Permanent fixation of revenue
D. Periodic revision of revenue
Answer: C Permanent fixation of revenue
Explanation: The hallmark of the Permanent Settlement was that the land revenue was fixed permanently.
3. Under the Ryotwari system, the land revenue was collected from:
A. Zamindars
B. Mahals
C. Village Headmen
D. Individual cultivators (ryots)
Answer: D Individual cultivators (ryots)
Explanation: The Ryotwari system collected revenue directly from ryots (cultivators), eliminating intermediaries.
4. Which land revenue system best preserved traditional village institutions?
A. Permanent Settlement
B. Ryotwari System
C. Mahalwari System
D. Zamindari System
Answer: C Mahalwari System
Explanation: The Mahalwari system was based on traditional village units (mahals) and involved village headmen.
5. Assertion (A): Zamindars were made owners of land under Permanent Settlement.
Reason (R): The British wanted to create a loyal class of intermediaries.
A. Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation.
B. Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation.
C. A is true, but R is false.
D. A is false, but R is true.
Answer: A Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation.
Explanation: Both statements are correct. The British made zamindars proprietors to ensure loyalty and stable revenue.
6. Which of the following areas was primarily associated with the Mahalwari system?
A. Bengal
B. Madras
C. Bombay
D. North-Western Provinces
Answer: D North-Western Provinces
Explanation: The Mahalwari system was introduced in the North-Western Provinces. 7. The term “absentee landlordism” is most closely associated with which system?
A. Mahalwari
B. Ryotwari
C. Permanent Settlement
D. Zamindari abolition
Answer: C Permanent Settlement
Explanation: In the Permanent Settlement, many zamindars lived away from their land, leading to absentee landlordism.
8. Which of the following was not a feature of the Ryotwari system?
A. Direct revenue collection
B. Permanent revenue settlement
C. Ownership of land by cultivators
D. Regular reassessment of revenue
Answer: B Permanent revenue settlement
Explanation: The revenue was not fixed permanently in the Ryotwari system; it was periodically reassessed.
9. Who among the following was responsible for modifying the Mahalwari system after its introduction?
A. Lord Curzon
B. James Thomson
C. William Bentinck
D. Cornwallis
Answer: B James Thomson
Explanation: James Thomson modified the Mahalwari system after its initial implementation by Holt Mackenzie.
10. Assertion (A): The Ryotwari system empowered peasants with ownership rights. Reason (R): It removed intermediaries like zamindars between the state and the cultivators.
A. Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation.
B. Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation.
C. A is true, but R is false.
D. A is false, but R is true.
Answer: A Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation.
Explanation: The Ryotwari system empowered ryots by removing zamindars and directly settling with cultivators.
11. Match the following Land Revenue Systems with the regions: System Region
A. Permanent 1. Madras
B. Ryotwari 2. Bengal
C. Mahalwari 3. North-Western Provinces
Options:
A. A-2, B-1, C-3
B. A-1, B-2, C-3
C. A-3, B-2, C-1
D. A-2, B-3, C-1
Answer: A A-2, B-1, C-3
Explanation:
● Permanent Settlement – Bengal
● Ryotwari – Madras
● Mahalwari – North-Western Provinces
12. The Permanent Settlement failed to encourage agricultural development because:
A. Revenue demand was too low
B. Zamindars had little incentive to invest
C. British provided too much freedom to peasants
D. Crop prices were fixed by the state
Answer: B Zamindars had little incentive to invest
Explanation: Zamindars had no accountability or incentive to invest in land improvement under the fixed revenue regime.
13. Which of the following systems resulted in land alienation and rise of moneylenders?
A. Only Permanent Settlement
B. Only Ryotwari
C. Only Mahalwari
D. All three systems
Answer: D All three systems
Explanation: In all three systems, high revenue demands and rigid collections led to peasant indebtedness and land loss.
14. Which one of the following statements is incorrect about the Mahalwari System?
A. Revenue was settled with village communities.
B. It was introduced in Bombay and Madras.
C. It allowed periodic revision of revenue.
D. It was introduced by Holt Mackenzie.
Answer: B It was introduced in Bombay and Madras.
Explanation: The Mahalwari system was implemented in North-Western Provinces, not in Bombay and Madras.
15. The key administrative motive behind all British land revenue systems was to:
A. Improve peasant welfare
B. Promote cooperative farming
C. Maximize revenue collection
D. Enhance agricultural productivity
Answer: C Maximize revenue collection
Explanation: The primary goal of all British land revenue systems was maximizing colonial revenue, not improving welfare or productivity.
