Sangam Texts & Society (3rd century B.C. to the 3rd century C.E)

Introduction

In South Indian history, the Sangam period is an important time, especially in the area south of the Krishna and Tungabhadra rivers. Named after the Sangam academies that flourished under the royal patronage of Madurai’s Pandya monarchs, this era saw a spectacular convergence of literature, politics, economy, and culture. Eminent scholars and poets convened at these academies to create and improve literary masterpieces that are among the oldest examples of Dravidian literature.

As per Tamil traditions, three Sangams (academies of Tamil poets), called together as Muchchangam, met in ancient South India. The First Sangam, said to have taken place in Madurai, was attended by gods and legendary sages, but its literary works are gone. The Second Sangam, held in Kapadapuram, produced only one surviving work: Tolkappiyam. The Third Sangam, also held at Madurai, produced various literary works that have helped reconstruct Sangam history.

Sangam Literature: A Window into the Past

Sangam literature is the primary source for understanding the Sangam age. The major works include:

In additional to Sangam literature, Greek authors Megasthenes, Strabo, Pliny, and Ptolemy write about trade between South India and the Western world. The Ashokan inscriptions and Kharavela’s Hathigumpha inscription from Kalinga both mention Tamil kingdoms.

Political History of the Sangam Period

The Sangam period was dominated by three major dynasties: the Cheras, Cholas, and Pandyas.

1. Cheras – The Cheras reigned over central and northern Kerala, as well as Tamil Nadu’s Kongu region. Their capital was Vanji, and they controlled vital ports like Musiri and Tondi. The Cheras’ insignia was a bow and arrow. The Pugalur inscription (first century AD) records three generations of Chera monarchs. Senguttuvan (the Red Chera), the greatest emperor, undertook military excursions to North India and established Kannagi devotion (Pattini cult).
2. Cholas – The Cholas ruled over central and northern Tamil Nadu, with their capital at Uraiyur and their main port at Puhar (Kaviripattinam). Their emblem was the tiger, and they had a strong navy. Karikala was the most famous Sangam-era Chola ruler, known for defeating the Cheras, Pandyas, and eleven other chieftains at the Battle of Venni. During his reign, trade flourished, and 160 kilometers of embankments were built along the Kaveri River.
3. Pandyas – The Pandyas ruled from Madurai, using Korkai as their principal port. Their insignia was a fish. The Pandyas supported Tamil Sangams and wrote several literary works. They had a formidable army and traded extensively, particularly in pearls. However, their dominance waned as a result of Kalabhra invasions.

Governance and Administration

During the Sangam period, the royalty was hereditary. Each dynasty had its royal emblem: tiger for the Cholas, fish for the Pandyas, and bow for the Cheras. The king was assisted by a five-member council that included ministers (Amaichar), priests (Anthanar), envoys (Thuthar), military commanders (Senapathi), and spies (Orrar). Land revenue was the state’s principal source of income, augmented by customs duties on foreign trade and military spoils. Roads and highways were well-maintained to facilitate trade and prevent contraband.

Sangam Society

Sangam society was classified based on five ecological zones:

The four main castes were Arasar (rulers), Anthanar (priests), Vanigar (merchants), and Vellalar (farmers). Various tribal communities, like the Todas, Irulas, and Nagas, also lived in the region.

Position of Women

Women in the Sangam age had intellectual freedom. Many famous women poets, including Avvaiyar, Nachchellaiyar, and Kakkaipadiniyar, made significant contributions to Tamil literature. Women could pick their life partners, but widows faced societal challenges. The upper classes practiced Sati.

Religion and Worship

Murugan, often known as the Tamil God, was the primary god of the Sangam period. He was revered in six great shrines (Arupadai Veedu). Mayon (Vishnu), Vendan (Indra), Varunan, and Korravai were other deities. The Hero Stone (Nadu Kal) was created to commemorate slain soldiers and was a prominent part of Sangam-era devotion.

Economic Prosperity

Agriculture was the foundation of the economy, with rice serving as the primary crop. Weaving, metals, carpentry, shipbuilding, and jewelry manufacturing were among the most popular handicrafts. Cotton and silk textiles from Uraiyur were highly desirable in Western markets. Puhar, Tondi, Musiri, Korkai, Arikkamedu, and Marakkanam were among the major trading ports. Roman coins discovered in Tamil Nadu suggest considerable trade with the Roman Empire. Cotton garments, spices (pepper, ginger, cardamom), pearls, and ivory were exported, with horses, gold, and wine imported.

End of the Sangam Age

The Sangam age was rapidly declining by the end of the third century A.D. The Kalabhras conquered Tamil Nadu between 300 A.D. and 600 A.D., ushering in what ancient historians referred to as the ‘Dark Age’. However, the Sangam era’s cultural and literary heritage had a long-lasting impact on Tamil society and history.

Conclusion

In South Indian history, the Sangam period was a heyday characterized by rich cultural traditions, political vibrancy, economic prosperity, and literary brilliance. Its literature stands as a testimony to the era’s intellectual and artistic triumphs, providing significant insights into ancient Tamilakam’s history, culture, and governance.