Mughal Empire (1526-1707)

(Administration, Mansabdari & Jagir System, Economy, Religious Policies, and Cultural Developments)

Introduction

The Mughal Empire (1526–1707), had a long-lasting effect on the country’s governance, economy, culture, and religious laws. Strong emperors like Babur, Akbar, and Aurangzeb ruled during this time, all of whom helped to administer and expand the empire. India’s socio-political landscape was shaped by the Mughals’ policies, which ranged from Akbar’s inclusion to Aurangzeb’s orthodox rule, even though they brought an effective bureaucratic system and tax administration.

Administration and Governance

Babur (1526-1530)

• Defeated Ibrahim Lodi in the First Battle of Panipat (1526), establishing Mughal rule in India.
• Introduced the Central Asian administrative model, influenced by Timurid and Mongol traditions.
• Created military provinces for governance but lacked time to build a structured bureaucracy due to his short reign.

Humayun (1530-1556)

• Struggled to maintain power, losing the empire to Sher Shah Suri.
• Lacked a strong administrative system, which led to his exile in Persia.
• Regained power in 1555 but died shortly after, passing the throne to Akbar.

Akbar (1556-1605)

• Laid the foundation for a strong and centralized administrative structure.
• Introduced the Mansabdari System, an official ranking system to manage both military and civil administration.
• Divided the empire into Subahs (provinces), Sarkars (districts), and Parganas (village clusters) for efficient governance.
• Implemented the Dahsala revenue system, introduced by Todar Mal, ensuring a fair taxation system.
• Established departments like Diwan-i-Kul (Finance), Mir Bakshi (Military), and Sadr-us-Sudur (Religious and Judicial Affairs).

Jahangir (1605-1627)

• Strengthened the administrative framework set by Akbar.
• Introduced the Chain of Justice, allowing citizens to directly petition the emperor.
• Allowed greater autonomy to regional governors, leading to decentralization.

Shah Jahan (1628-1658)

• Consolidated the empire’s governance and expanded bureaucracy.
• Strengthened the military and increased the number of Mansabdars.
• Undertook extensive architectural projects, bringing economic prosperity.

Aurangzeb (1658-1707)

• Expanded the empire to its largest extent but overburdened the administration.
• Enforced stricter Islamic policies and abolished many liberal reforms of his predecessors.
• Increased the number of Mansabdars, leading to inefficiency and corruption.

Mansabdari and Jagir System

Mansabdari System

• Introduced by Akbar to rank officials based on their military and civil service.
• Two ranks: Zat (personal rank) and Sawar (cavalry rank) determined an officer’s position and salary.

Jagir System

• Instead of salaries, officials were given Jagirs (land revenue assignments).
• Jagirdars collected revenue from their territories but had no ownership rights.
• Under Aurangzeb, corruption and revenue decline weakened the system, leading to administrative inefficiencies.

Economic and Agrarian Structure

Agriculture

• Primary source of revenue, with crops like wheat, rice, sugarcane, and cotton.
• Revenue collection under various systems:
  1. Zabt System (Akbar): Standardized revenue assessment.
  2. Batai System: Crop-sharing between the state and peasants.
  3. Nasaq System: Revenue estimation based on past records.
  4. Ghalla Bakshi: Revenue paid in kind.

Trade and Commerce

• Internal and external trade flourished through Silk Route, Persian Gulf, and Deccan routes.
• Cities like Surat, Agra, Lahore, and Bengal became major trade hubs.
• The Mughal silver rupee became a dominant currency in South Asia.
• India’s handicrafts (textiles, metalwork, carpets) were in high demand globally.

Religious Policies

Akbar (1556-1605)

• Introduced Sulh-i-Kul (universal tolerance), ensuring religious harmony.
• Abolished the Jizya tax on non-Muslims.
• Founded Din-i-Ilahi, an eclectic faith promoting religious unity.

Jahangir and Shah Jahan

• Continued Akbar’s policy of religious tolerance.
• Patronized Hindus, Jains, and Sikhs and promoted Persian and Sufi traditions.

Aurangzeb (1658-1707)

• Reimposed Jizya tax on non-Muslims (1679), reversing Akbar’s policies.
• Banned the construction of new temples and imposed strict Islamic laws.
• Ordered the destruction of some Hindu temples, leading to widespread resistance.
• His policies alienated non-Muslims, contributing to revolts by Rajputs, Marathas, and Sikhs.

Cultural Developments

Art and Architecture

• Akbar: Built Fatehpur Sikri, blending Persian and Rajput styles.
• Jahangir: Encouraged Mughal miniature paintings and realistic portraiture.
• Shah Jahan: Known for grand architecture, including Taj Mahal, Red Fort, Jama Masjid, and Shalimar Gardens.
• Aurangzeb: Focused on mosques and military fortifications rather than grand palaces.

Literature and Music

• Akbar’s court:
  1. Abul Fazl wrote Ain-i-Akbari and Akbarnama.
  2. Tansen enriched Hindustani classical music.
  3. Birbal became famous for wit and diplomacy.
• Persian and Sanskrit texts flourished, with translations commissioned to bridge cultures.

Conclusion

Indian history was influenced by the Mughal Empire (1526–1707) by its innovations in administration, economic growth, religious regulations, and cultural accomplishments. Whereas Aurangzeb’s strict orthodoxy caused administrative and economic deterioration, Akbar’s liberal policies improved government. The Mughals left behind a rich legacy in Indian politics, economics, architecture, and cultural practices that still have an impact on the country today, even though they fell in the early 18th century.